Narikala in Georgia

Narikala is an ancient fortress overlooking Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia, and the Kura river. The fortress consists of two walled sections on a steep hill between the sulphur baths and the botanical gardens of Tbilisi. On the lower court there is the recently restored St Nicholas church.

The fortress was established in the 4th century as Shuris-tsikhe (i.e., "Invidious Fort"). It was considerably expanded in the 7th century and later, by king David the Builder (1089-1125). The Mongols renamed it "Narin Qala" (i.e., "Little Fortress"). Most of extant fortifications date from the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1827, parts of the fortress were damaged by an earthquake and demolished.

The city’s main citadel, which dates from the 4th Century AD. Rick: The Narikala Fortress sits above the Tbilisi botanical gardens, one can stroll the gardens and view the fortress quite well. Enter the fortress only with a guide, caution is urged. Look for two steel doors entering a hillside in the garden and have a look at the largest bomb shelter I have ever seen, built Soviet style. This is a tunnel which runs through the hill all the way to the center of the city again caution is urged. Tbilisi is a wonderful city for wine and food lovers, excellent resturants and very resonable. However, hard times always present some problems and unemployment is high.

The Nubian Museum
The area of Egypt we now call Nubia follows the River Nile from
Aswan, 350km south to the town of Dabba, near the Fourth Cataract
and the Sudanese border. It is thought that the name Nubia may be
derived from the ancient Egyptian word for gold, 'nbu', as it was from
this land that Egypt obtained most of its rich source of gold and Nubia
was the passage from ancient Egypt to the exotic African lands farther
south. Many pharaohs built small temples and fortresses along the banks
of the Nile in Nubia and exported ebony, ivory, incense and precious
metals and minerals back to Egypt, as well as Nubian slaves. Throughout
Egyptian history Nubia has been alternatively an enemy or a conquered
race, apart from a brief period in Dynasty XXV, when the Nubian (or Kushite)
kings rose to rule Egypt as pharaohs.
Archaeologists have found close cultural ties between Egypt and Nubia from
Prehistoric times and there is much evidence of this from the Egyptian
objectsfound in Nubian graves. Scholars generally divide the history of Nubia
intodifferent cultural groups, assigning letters to each group: A, B, C, D etc.
A-Group and B-Group cultures are loosely tied to the Early Dynastic Period
and the Old Kingdom in Egypt. C-Group culture arose towards the end of the
Old Kingdom and stretched into the Early New Kingdom, whilst the Third
Intermediate Period is represented by the Kushite Kings and the Persian,
Late and Ptolemaic Periods in Egypt were contemporary with the Meroitic
Period in Nubia. At the peak of the Meroitic Period, around the 1st century AD
, Egypt became a Roman province. Nubian culture went into a decline after
this time and was dominated by different groups of desert tribes until the
6th century AD - a period assigned to X-Group culture. In 380AD, the Byzantine
Emperor Theodisius I declared Christianity the official state religion in Egypt
and ten years later banned all pagan religions in all parts of his empire, ordering
the closure of temples in all parts of Egypt and Nubia, including the Temple of
Isis at Philae in Aswan. The Nubians resisted and Isis continued to be worshipped
for another two centuries, although by this time the new religion had found its
way into the hearts of the Nubian people and many Coptic monasteries and
churches had been built. By the 8-9th centuries, the Arabs had also established
their presence in Nubia.Archaeologists have found close cultural ties between
Egypt and Nubia from Prehistoric times and there is much evidence of this from
the Egyptian objects found in Nubian graves. Scholars generally divide the history
of Nubia into different cultural groups, assigning letters to each group: A, B, C, D etc.
A-Group and B-Group cultures are loosely tied to the Early Dynastic Period and
the Old Kingdom in Egypt. C-Group culture arose towards the end of the Old
Kingdom and stretched into the Early New Kingdom, whilst the Third
Intermediate Period is represented by the Kushite Kings and the Persian,
Late and Ptolemaic Periods in Egypt were contemporary with the Meroitic
Period in Nubia. At the peak of the Meroitic Period, around the 1st century
AD, Egypt became a Roman province. Nubian culture went into a decline
after this time and was dominated by different groups of desert tribes until
the 6th century AD - a period assigned to X-Group culture. In 380AD, the
Byzantine Emperor Theodisius I declared Christianity the official state religion
in Egypt and ten years later banned all pagan religions in all parts of his empire,
ordering the closure of temples in all parts of Egypt and Nubia, including the
Temple of Isis at Philae in Aswan. The Nubians resisted and Isis continued to
be worshipped for another two centuries, although by this time the new religion
had found its way into the hearts of the Nubian people and many Coptic
monasteries and churches had been built. By the 8-9th centuries, the Arabs
had also established their presence in Nubia.Inside the museum a flight
of stairs leads down from street level to the entrance of the temperature
and light controlled exhibition space. The focal point is an 8m high Nubian
sandstone statue of Rameses II, brought from storage after 27 years. The
visitor is led around the exhibits in a chronological order, beginning with the
Prehistoric, through the Pharaonic era to Graeco-Roman, Coptic and Islamic
periods of art. Large 'history-boards' on the walls near each exhibit provide
plenty of background information on Nubia's role in Egyptian history. Other
exhibition zones depict the story of irrigation, the UNESCO campaign to save
the Nubian monuments threatened by flooding after the building of the High
Dam and many folk and heritage displays. There is an information centre,
a gift shop and toilets on the ground floor and stairs and lifts to other areas.
This museum is a showcase for the future of Egyptian museums and is a tribute
to those who took part in its design, which has recently been awarded the prestigious International Aga Khan Award for Architecture.

How to get there

The new Nubian Museum is situated east of the Old Cataract Hotel, at the southern entrance to the town and about half an hour's walk from the town centre. You should allow yourself at least two hours for a quick tour if you want to see all the exhibits, but I have found several visits are necessary to take it all in properly.

Pantheon

The Pantheon Paris, with its striking dome, was originally commissioned as a church in 1744 under Louis XV. However, it wasn’t finished until 1789, at which point, because of the Revolution, churches had fallen from popularity. Thus it became a temple to France, honoring historical figures. Within the Pantheon’s ornate walls you’ll find a crypt that houses the remains of more than 70 people, including Votaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Marie Curie, and Alexandre Dumas. Considered the soul of the Latin quarter, with its magnificent dome and solemn interior, the Pantheon Paris is an inspiring edifice.

The Eiffel Tower, built in 1889 for the World Exhibition, is perhaps the most famous of all monuments of Paris. Built from 7,000 tons of iron and reaching 1,050 feet into the sky, the tower wasn’t love at first sight for Parisians, who hated the structure initially. The Cathedrale Notre-Dame was begun in 1163 and completed in 1345. An example of French gothic architecture, the south tower holds the bell tolled by the fictional Quasimodo in The Huntchback of Notre Dame, written by Frenchman Victor Hugo. Sacre-Coeur sits atop Montmartre hill, offering sweeping views of the city, and a beautiful domed building. The Arc de Triomphe, located on the famed avenue Champs Élysées and centered in the world largest traffic roundabout, is a simple, yet daunting monument commissioned by Napoleon, and one of the best monuments of Paris. The gothic Saint Chapelle, built in the 13th century, has 15 stained glass windows depicting an entire biblical history. With famous buildings and museums all over the city, these are only a handful of the monuments of Paris.

Paris walking tours are a great way to see the city, and appreciate the sheer density of famous architecture, churches, galleries, and restaurants in Paris. No matter where you are in Paris, there’s something around the corner to look at. A walking tour is a great way to see Paris. The city is divided by the river Seine, with two islands in the middle. Paris is also divided into 20 districts, called arrondissements. Paris Walking Tours offers themed tours through the various districts.

If the lively city, monuments, and food aren’t enough to convince you to holiday in Pairs, than perhaps some of the festivals will. Féte de la musique happens in June, including an assortment of scheduled, and spontaneous performances in parks, clubs, and street corners. The summer includes jazz concerts in the park. Gay pride happens in March. Bastille Day is France’s national day, with massive firework displays. The Tour de France cycling race ends on the Champs-Élysées in early July.

The Pantheon Paris, with its visible dome and ornate, marble interior, is one of the important monuments of Paris. The most outspoken edifice in the Latin quarter, tourist flock to see the Pantheon, a monument to the history of the French, particularly its artistic leaders. It’s a popular stop during Paris walking tours, and top pick during a Paris vacation.

Castel Sant D'Angelo

Castel Sant D'Angelo

Having passed Sant' Angelo Bridge, one is immediately confronted with the mighty structure of Castel Sant'Angelo. This fortress was started by Hadrian and was designed to serve as his family tomb. It was not until the Medieval period that this tomb received several additional structures, including the present-day ramparts and tower. Thus, the castle acquired a distinctly Medieval feel. Thoroughly transformed into a citadel, Castel Sant'Angelo is, however, organised around the old tomb of Hadrian, with the innermost walls being perfectly preserved and the Medieval bastions having remained intact. There are also several entrances remaining of the initial construction, as well as the original tower from Hadrian's era. The marble coating and the sumptuous sculptures, however, belong to a more recent epoque.


aThe site bears some distinct Renaissance features, the most prominent example of these being the arcade galleries. The site's diverse architectural trends still blend in into a consistent whole, with the core tower having once included a monument to Emperor Hadrian being currently dominated by the bronze statue of an angel. The outer yard is an addition from the 16th Century, with its former five bastions having given way to the present-day Piazza Pia. The two forts are divided by a ditch, now employed as a park, and planted with various trees. The cylindrical building, following a millenium-long life as a castle, has been transformed into a museum in the 20th Century.

Hadrian commissioned the construction of his tomb somethime in the 2nd Century. The structure was initially conceived as a cylinder, which was to incorporate various decorations and was to be topped with a garden. The Emperor was, indeed, buried on the site, which also became the resting place of his wife and son, Lucius Aelius. The tradition of burying Roman Emperors here was continued until 217, with the tomb's Treasury Room becoming literally packed with urns containing royal ashes. Pons Aelius, which is also part of the edifice, was another structure commenced by Hadrian, and substantially rebuilt after the Medieval period. It now has various Baroque ornaments, including several sculptures and depictions of the Passion of Christ.

The tomb's interiors have supposedly been richly frescoed and decorated. Sadly, these have been lost to a great extent. As the structure was converted into a military fortress in the 5th Century, and was incorporated into the Aurelian Walls, the urns with ashes of important emperors were lost for good, and following a foreign raid, most of the bronze and marble sculptures were looted. Among the few surviving articles from these raids is the cap of a funerary urn, which has been found in the Basilica of Saint Peter.

During the Middle Ages, the site was converted into a castle. Back in the 14th Century, Pope Nicholas III connected it to the Basilica of St Peter via a covered arcade dubbed Passetto di Borgo. The castle served as a sanctuary for Pope Clement VII during the siege of Charles V in 1527. Almost a decade later, in 1536, Raffaello da Montelupo installed one of his fine depictions of a Madonna in one of the chapels, also constributing to the site with a statue of St Michael. Montelupo's mastepiece was replaced by a bronze statue by Flemish sculptor Peter Anton von Verschaffelt in 1753, while Montelupo's piece was relocated to the inner court. Sant'Angelo was further employed as a museum and as a prison, with the inner square used as an execution yard

in spain

The Roman Theatre at Mérida, last refuge of the Muses

The Roman Theatre at Mérida is a splendid monument, Europe's best conserved and the only one which, after being reconditioned, continues to be the setting for theatrical representations and recitals. Every year, people from all over the world are moved by immortal classics of theatre, performed on their original stage, an architectural gem of the 1st century BC. The theatre is set in a World Heritage City and attracts thousands of tourists year after year.

Seeing a play performed in the unique setting of Mérida Theatre is a unique, unforgettable experience. The slope of the semicircular theatre, whose original capacity was of some 6,000 people, has incredible acoustics, sensitive to even a whisper by the performers. In the centre there is an impressive stage, decorated by Corinthian-style marble columns, considered to be one of the most beautiful and grandiose of all the Roman Empire.

Since the first decade of the 20th century, when the stage area was recovered from where it lay for years, collapsed and hidden underground, the Theatre's age old stones have been the setting for works of theatre, ballet and other artistic representations. The Classical Theatre Festival, held every year since 1933, is the site's most notable cultural event. It allows spectators to travel back in time and enjoy the legacy of Greece and Rome in their original setting. This spectacular festival is recognized for its importance at an international level.

A monumental city Next to the Theatre you will find the Amphitheatre, and not far away, the Circus. These impressive sites, destined to leisure activities, are to be found within what once was a complete, walled Roman city with roads, arches, forums, houses, such as the Casa del Mitreo, and beautiful temples, like that of Diana. Besides the Guadiana and Albarregas bridges, whose rivers run alongside the town, the ancient Romans also built the Los Milagros Aqueduct and two reservoirs: Proserpina and Cornalvo, in the Nature Reserve of the same name. A visit to the monuments and archaeological remains at Mérida is a chance to delve into one of the most interesting periods of history - to travel back in time from the 21st century and experience the splendour of the Roman Empire.

Abu Simbel

The monuments at Abu Simbel were practically unknown in the Egyptological world until Johan Ludwig Burckhardt visited the site in 1813 when he saw the upper part of a temple façade almost covered by sand. Giovanni Battista Belzoni visited the site shortly afterwards in 1817 and discovered the entrance door. Since that time many adventurers have been struck by the awe-inspiring façade of the temple built by Rameses II around 3000 years ago with its giant colossal statues of the king sculpted from the mountain rock. In the 1960s the new High Dam was built at Aswan which resulted in a build-up of water which threatened to engulf the monuments along its Nubian shores. In a dramatic race against time UNESCO began a US$40 million rescue operation in 1964, the like of which had never been seen before. In the incredible salvage operation the temples were dismantled and cut up into manageable-sized blocks, then painstakingly reconstructed 65m higher than the original site, away from the dangers of the encroaching water. Inside a specially constructed mountain, two gigantic reinforced concrete domes protect the rebuilt temples. Visitors to the temples today are easily able to forget that they are not in their original position. Such great care was taken in the landscaping and orientation of the monuments and it is only the fact that one may enter the artificial dome to view its construction which reminds us that the site of Rameses' temple has now vanished below the waters of the lake. Each evening there are three performances of a Sound and Light Show in seven different languages.

The Great Temple of Rameses II

The façade of the Temple of Rameses II is dominated by four colossal seated statues carved out of the cliff face, each 20m high and depicting the king, with Nubians carved in the base at his feet. The faces of the statues appear to show Rameses in different stages of his life, although it is thought that the temple was built quite early in his reign. The figures are immense when you are standing at their base looking up at them. Rameses the Great obviously did not want to be forgotten when he built this Nubian Temple. His mother Tuya, his Chief Wife Nefertari and some of his many children can be seen in smaller scale at his feet. The monument is dedicated to the gods Re-Horakhty, Amun and Ptah, as well as the divine Rameses himself. There are later inscriptions carved on the statues. A Greek inscription by the soldiers of Psamtek II of Dynasty XXVI is carved on the most ruined of the colossi. The Temple of Hathor The second rock-cut temple at Abu Simbel lies close by to the north of the Great Temple and is similar in plan but on a smaller scale. It was built in honour of Rameses' Great Wife and most favoured of his consorts, Nefertari. This smaller monument is dedicated to the goddess Hathor. The façade of the temple shows Nefertari on each side of the entrance standing between two colossal 10m statues of Rameses, again with smaller images of royal children at their feet. Never before had a queen been depicted alongside her husband and on the same scale, on the façade of a temple. The temple interior is very simple and built on a much more human scale than the Great Temple. Scenes on the walls of the pillared hall depict Nefertari taking part in divine rituals with her husband before Hathor and Mut and in the same role as the king. They also show the consecration of Nefertari as divine queen. There are traditional scenes of the pharaoh Rameses II in his warrior role of slaying captives. Six square pillars set in two rows and crowned with Hathor heads give a very gentle and feminine feel to the monument. In the sanctuary at the rear of the temple a statue in high relief seems to grow out of the rock wall, showing Hathor as the sacred cow-goddess emerging from the Western Mountain. Chambers open to the north and south of the Vestibule with colourful scenes showing Hathor on her sacred barque. The side chambers have a cave-like feel, being carved from the mountain rock

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Guernsey Attractions

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Ancient Monuments

Like the rest of the Channel Islands, Guernsey is steeped in history. Up to 6,500BC, the islands were in fact part of the French mainland until the Ice Age came to an end. Discoveries in the 20th century have shown evidence of mankind dating back to 5,000 BC (New Stone Age) when tribes, possibly from Spain moved here. All around Guernsey are traces of neolithic man, including defensive earth works, menhirs and dolmens. These are burial chambers built above the ground and several survive in remarkably good condition. The largest in Guernsey, La Varde Dolmen is near the 17th green of L'Ancresse golf course and measures 10 metres long by four metres wide and has a capping stone pile of five metres long and one metre thick.

Further dolmens can be found at Hougue de Dehus, which has a burial Chamber of for 10 metres by 1.5 metres , Le Creux es Feies (the fairy grotto) and Le Trepid near to Le Catioroc which Victor Hugo claimed was haunted by the cries of women waiting for their lover, the devil. As mentioned in the section on churches, human figures carved out of granite have also had survived from around 2500.

In January 2001, an excavation at La Route de Carteret has revealed two sophisticated arrow heads, thought to be at least 6,000 years old. They will go on display in the summer along with other material from the site, which will shortly be built on.

A new archaeological dig in the marshy Belgrave Vinery site in the Vale got underway in June 2001. Early finds are promising with the discovery of a substantial standing stone that could date back to 4,000 BC. The area is very low lying, has medieval drainage and is thought not to have been developed upon since the Duke of Richmond's map of 1787. A major housing development is due to be built on the site.

A 20 feet long menhir weighing 28 tons found at L'Ancresse Bay, has been erected near to La Varde ancient tomb in April 2001 as part of the Vale's Millennium celebration. The massive stone has proven to be a logistic nightmare moving it from its sunken position in the sand to the common land. The project was first planned in 1999 but despite modern cranes and machinery, it has proven to be a massive task. It raises questions as to how neolithic man managed to erect these type of structures. It is hoped that it will still be there in another thousand years.

La Longue Rocque, La Route de Paysans, St Peter

This is the tallest menhir in Guernsey at three and a half metres high. Traditional Guernsey folklore said that the fairies used to use it as a cricket bat and some say that it increases fertility if touched, so beware!

Perry's Ref: 21 E4

La Varde, Mont Cuet Road, Vale

This huge megalithic passage grave was discovered in 1811 during military exercises when human remains were found, and excavated in 1837. It is 10 metres long and with a capstone five metres long and weighing 10 tons, one can not even start to imagine how it was put in place. The structure is tall enough to stand inside and has graduating upright stones from front to rear. There is also a small oval recess. Built between 3,000 to 2,500BC, it was in use until the late Bronze age circa 1,000 BC as indicated by flints, stone tools and pottery. Successive burials or cremations were deposited within the chambers.

Perry's Ref: 6C2

Le Creux es Faies, La Route de la Rocque, St Peter

Folklore has us believe that this tomb was the entrance to fairyland and that every week, the night fairies would come out to play near Le Trepied Dolmen. This neolithic passage grave is one of many fine examples on the island and date to around 3,000 BC and in use for successive burials until the late Bronze age circa 1,000. It is 9 metres long opening into a round ended chamber. Two original cap stones survive. It was excavated in 1840 and tanged flint arrowheads dated at 1,800 BC were found.

Perry's Ref: 12A5

Le Dehus Dolmen, La Rue du Dehus, Vale

At first sight it looks like just a grass mound, but it owes its existence to the foresight of John de Havilland who saved it from quarrymen by purchasing it in 1775 for £4.10.s.00. It was excavated in 1837 by F C Lukis and found to cover a complex Neolithic passage grave, 10-metres long dating back to 3,500 B.C. It has a narrow entrance and broad chamber. There are various side chambers and a capstone originally thought to be an upright, has a unique carving of a bearded archer holding a bow and arrows, discovered in 1916, known as Le Gardien du Tombeau. Well worth a visit

Perry's Ref: 7H4

Les Fouaillages, L'Ancresse, Vale

On the Golf course at Ladies Bay and in close proximity to the other ancient graves, this Neolithic burial chamber was only discovered in 1977 amid great excitement as the original part dates back to 4500 B.C. and places it as one of the oldest structures in Europe. Decorated pottery was also discovered inside. A stone platform, cairn, double open chamber and small enclosed chamber served as an elaborate neolithic ritual concerning death, burial and the afterlife. Around 2,500 BC the site entered a new phase with a turf mound being added with a rectangular chamber and surrounded by a ring of boulders.

Perry's Ref: 6B4

Medieval wreck site

The most important medieval wreck site in NW Europe near St Peter Port Harbour mouth is larger than first thought. There may be as many as five or more wrecks dating back to 14th century. Guernsey was an important trading point between France and England. A large amount of pottery from the Saintonge region of France has been found, suggesting that the ship was carrying a consignment of earthenware.

Erosion and heavy sea traffic is resulting in the wrecks breaking up and timber is being washed away. Southampton University is engaged in analysing the timbers and if funds can be raised, the wrecks may be lifted.

Excavations in the Bonded Store area under Market street have also revealed medieval artefacts including pottery, ceramics, a Venus figurine and a small jewel called Intaglis. They have helped build up a picture back to Roman times. The Archaeology department hope to publish a book about Roman Guernsey, later in the year

CITADELS OF DAMASCUS

CITADELS OF DAMASCUS

Citadel of Damascus The Castle of Damascus is built at the same level as the city ground. The castle architects have made up for its being deprived of natural elevation by providing it with alternative features that are not found in other castles that are fortified with heights. These features include its huge and fortified construction, the height of the towers, the way they were sculptured.
The Saljuki Castle Western historians thought for a while that the castle had Roman or Byzantine origins, due to the presence of Roman stones that are sculptured within the castle. This view was soon dropped as a result of more modern opinions. Regarding the presence of Roman stoned, researchers have noted that such stones were not placed in their original locations. Historical records seem to indicate that the Saljukis were the first to construct the castle, the construction having been started by King Atzin Adaq in 1076 A.D. The castle has several gates, most of which were dilapidated. It contains openings through which boiling oil would be poured over the heads of attackers, as well holes fore archers to shoot their arrows. The castle was surrounded by a trench which would be filled with water during sieges. The castle has wells and water canals, so that when water is cut off, the wells would provide them with the necessary water. The plan of the castle remained unchanged until 1202 A.D., after which King Al-Adel ordered it to be demolished and had a new castle built in its place.
Although Damascus witnessed during the Crusades only one siege (July 1148)which lasted but a few days. King Al-Adel who was preparing to confront the Crusades had found that the old castle did not fulfill the needs required and that it no longer kept pace with the developments that took place in the art of architecture and military defenses. Moreover, it was partly demolished following the earthquake that befallen it in 597 and 598. The castle was surrounded with a deep trench which used to be filled, during sieges, with water drawn from nearby Barada River.
Each corner of the castle had a tower. There are two rowers in the eastern side, one of which includes the eastern entrance to the castle, and three towers in the northern and southern fronts. The towers are connected by thick walls. They end in their upper part with curtains provided with balconies with holes from which archers could shoot their arrows. Behind the towers there is a roofed corridor that runs round the four sides of the castle and secures the link between them and is known as the defensive corridor.

Delhi

Delhi, being the capital of many empires for centuries - especially of Mughal India, has a number of forts and monuments to boast of. The city has blended the past and the present beautifully. There are strong citadels, such as Red Fort, Old Fort, Jantar Mantar, Tombs of the royal personages and Qutub Minar, which are counted amongst some of the most luring monuments of the capital city of India.

Besides these, one can find a number of other beautiful tombs, mosques and buildings throughout the city that have interesting history and legends attached to them. The lifestyle of the people of New Delhi is interwoven with the age old traditions and customs. Some of the major and the most important monuments in the city are as follows

Qutub Minar
Qutubuddin Aibak laid the foundation of Qutab Minar, as a victory tower, in 1199 AD. Originally, it rose to a height of 72.5 m. It is undoubtedly one of the finest stone towers in India and one of the most important landmarks of Delhi. Iltutmish, the son-in-law and successor of Qutubuddin, completed its construction.

Red Fort
Shah Jahan shifted his capital from Agra to Shahjahanabad and laid the foundation of Red Fort, or the Lal Quila, on 16th April 1639. It took nine years to build this mighty citadel and it got completed on 16th April 1648. It is said that about one crore rupees, an astronomical sum in those days, was spent on its construction.

Humayun's Tomb
The second Mughal Emperor Humayun died just a year after he regained Delhi. His Persian wife, Hamida Begum, supervised the construction of his tomb from 1562-1572. It was designed by the Persian architect, Mirak Mirza Ghiyuath.

Isa Khan's Tomb
Isa Khan's Tomb is situated just outside the Humayun's tomb precincts in New Delhi. It was built in the honor of Isa Khan, a brave and valiant noble under Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler who had overthrown Humayun. It was built in 1547, in an octagonal pattern.

Jantar Mantar
Situated at Connaught Place area of New Delhi, Jantar Mantar is one of the five observatories built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, the ruler and founder of Jaipur, in India. Smaller than the one at Jaipur, it is still astonishing because of its capability to make accurate calculations of many astronomical movements.

Old Fort
Said to be built on the site of Indraprastha, mentioned in Mahabharata - the great Indian epic, Old Fort has been the seat for administration for many emperors. Now in ruins, this citadel had the glory of being the seat of the legendary ruler, Prithviraj Chauhan. Sher Shah Suri built it after he demolished the Humayun's city, Dinpanah.

Safdarjung Tomb
Situated besides the Safdarjung airport in New Delhi, Safdarjung tomb was built by the Nawab of Awadh for his father. It is one of the finest examples of architecture in India. The second Nawab of the Awadh dynasty was popularly known as Safdarjung.

Why Reuse Parts of Old Monuments?

Why Reuse Parts of Old Monuments?

Trajanic sculpture

There are at least three different explanations for this reuse of parts of older monuments, and they are not necessarily mutually exclusive. One possible explanation is lack of highly skilled artisans. At the start of the 4th century Rome had not been at the centre of government for some time, and without the presence of the imperial court the artistic workshops would have much less to do, and hence be fewer.

Another possibility for the reuse is lack of time. The period from Constantine's first appearance in Rome (312 CE) and the tenth anniversary of his ascent to power (315 or 316 CE) left little time for the execution of the numerous sculptures and reliefs needed for the monument.

The third possible explanation for recycling is a desire to place Constantine in the same group of emperors as Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, who are also known as the Good Emperors, because they brought peace, prosperity and safe succession to the empire. This might be flattery or wishful thinking on behalf on the senate, or it might be a part of the self-image Constantine wanted such a monument to reflect.

Neither of these possible explanations exclude any of the other, so any combination of them is also a possibility.

Is the arch itself recycled?

There is a somewhat heated academic debate about the relation between the present day monument and what might have occupied the spot before. The traditional view, and the view most often repeated, is that the arch was built anew in the years 312-215 CE using in part spolia from older monuments and in part artwork made for the occasion for the decoration.

Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius

Various archaeologists have argued that almost the whole arch is recycled. Excavations in the late 1990s [Conforto 2001] have revealed older foundations below the current, dating from the time of Domitian. It is known from written sources that Domitian erected arches to his own honour, but if the remains below the Arch of Constantine is from one of these, then the arch was either been torn down following the damnatio memoriae inflicted on Domitian after his death or it was dilapidated and abandoned.

The next level of foundations found was dated to the time of Hadrian, but they are the foundations of the current arch! If this is correct, at least the lower parts of the current arch must be from the time of Hadrian. No ancient sources mention an arch erected by Hadrian, but neither do they mention the Arch of Constantine. The theory is supported by the fact that the only pieces of spolia that do not appear to have been remounted in a new location are the Hadrianic Roundels. According to this theory they have never been removed.

There are further evidence that an existing arch has been modified to make the Arch of Constantine. The lower parts, including the arches, are made in opus quadratum of very high quality, but the attic is made of opus latericium covered with marble slabs. There is little reason to change construction technique like that if the whole structure is made at the same time. Hence, the lower parts are Hadrianic, while the attic is Constantinian.

There are also signs that the eight columns were originally attached to the arch itself, and later detached from the main mass of the arch by moving the bases and extending the cornice around the top to accommodate the extra distance. This intervention can be deduced from small changes in the way the cornice is made. It is possible that an error had crept in while constructing the Arch of Constantine and the columns had to be moved, but it is more likely another sign that the the Arch of Constantine is a modification of an earlier arch that had the columns attached.

This theory (and others like it) is not uncontested. It has also been argued [Pensabene 1999] that the arch is the first major monument at that spot, and that even the works of art from the time of Constantine are spolia from another Constantinian monument.

paris

The Times (London) writes about Volume 3: "...takes you through Haussmann's Paris, bringing its history to life in a wealth of detail, just as the author did for her earlier books. This volume leads you to many of the "secret places" of Paris, from the old vineyards of Vaugirard to the couscous restaurants of Belleville."

"These guides have all the virtues of the best Baedekers plus a modern lively approach that makes them extremely readable... And it is a fascinating work... aimed at the serious visitor keen to absorb the history and culture of Paris... In addition to an encyclopaedic knowledge of minutiae of Paris day by day Thirza Vallois reveals a lively manner and a delightful style. Entertaining at all times and full of erudition and historical anecdote she out-Baedekers Baedeker even at his best. Alan Smalley/Officier des Palmes Académiques Francophonie, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

"Thirza Vallois has written an exceptional 'streetwise guide' to Paris, one of the most exciting, enlightening, yet intimate books on Paris it has been my pleasure to read."
David Worley, President, Association Inter-communautaire de Conseil d'Echanges de Formation et d'Etudes.

"Apparently the book is a walker's guidebook, loaded with information on history, art, culture, geography, topography, and divided into arrondissements with walks in each. But, in point of fact, it is devoted to the meticulous deconstructing of clichés which have clung to the city for the last 1,000 years. The reader is required to confront a text which demands close attention and a wide cultural background.
Until I delved into this book I would have staked my head on my conviction that I knew Paris pretty well. Today I stand dumbfounded by the wealth of knowledge showered on me and I blame myself for all that my eyes have failed to see in this city. "
Beni Ziffer, Haaretz, Culture and Literature, 1 December 1995

"Serous Parisophiles will welcome Thirza Vallois's Around and About Paris. The author's exceptional eye for detail and an encyclopedic knowledge of history, folklore, art and architecture are like having your own guide at every turn."
Lucy Miller, The Jewish Chronicle 18 August 1995

"Vallois gives a detailed account of the city's historical development and of its individual quartiers (…) The reader can sit back and enjoy her enlightening account of the city. She brings alive its sights, walks and gastronomic tradition and punctuates her guide with anecdotes of famous residents."
Lucy Yoeman, The European 15 October 1995

Simon Bates who interviewed the author on Radio London said, he "loved the book [...] It's a read."

The Interviewer on Spectrum Radio qualified it as "the definitive cultural companion to Paris."

The Times Literary Supplement, "This is the second of three guides to Paris; it covers the 8th to the 12th arroniddements. (...) Thirza Vallois introduces each of these arrondissements with a chapter on its history and character (...). This is followed by guided tours for interesting spots, their historical asociations, their present appearance and how to locate them. The modern city is constantly peeled back to reveal layer upon layer underneath (...). For anyone wholoves Paris and would like to know more about its historical and literary associations, this is a well-written and astonishingly informative companion."

Eurostar Magazine says about Volume 2, "This book, as much a historical portrait as a guidebook, destroys many of the myths about French history and in exchange gives us an insight into its past cultural and political life - as seen by a British writer."

Geoff Andrew writing in TimeOut on the second volume: "It's in no way a directory for tourists (get the TO Paris guide for that), but with its wit, erudition and lively writing, it knocks most books on the City of Light for six." 10-17 July 1996.

"These guides are different. They take you on specific walks with the aid of little maps (sometimes too little) and open almost every door you pass, bringing you the stories behind them. As histories, their wealth of information, from architecture to folklore, is staggering... Walking with Vallois will make this lovely but often standoffish city seem so much more accessible and even friendly." Meir Ronnen, The Jerusalem Post, June 1996 on Volume 1 and Volume 2.

"For in-depth coverage of the sights, sounds and smells of Paris, nothing tops Thirza Vallois' "Around and About Paris" books... You can wear out your feet before you get through these two volumes, but you would be so entertained you wouldn't even notice." Janet Delong, The Paris Free Voice July & August 1996.

The three pyramids at Giza are the most visited attraction in the world. The Great Pyramid of the Fourth Dynasty king Khufu, the ultimate 'resurrection machine', is the biggest pyramid ever built. It stands with its neighbors, the pyramids of Khafra and Menkaura, as the last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The immense size of these pyramids invites comparison with the most ambitious human projects of any age, and they have never ceased to fire people's imagination.

It was the hope of every Egyptian to be reborn after death, to attain an afterlife with the sun-god Ra and be resurrected with each sunrise, and to join with Osiris in the cyclical regeneration of nature and plant life with the receding of the annual Nile flood.

These are not opposing beliefs, but a complementary interweaving of the varying cycles of creation with which the Egyptians linked their own eternal rebirth. However, neither the annual rise of the life-giving waters of the Nile nor the re-emergence of the sun each morning was guaranteed. Eternal night and the cessation of plant life were constant threats which had to be averted so that creation could begin again. In the same way, formidable obstacles had to be overcome for resurrection to be achieved.

The journey to the next world was perilous: demons waited to sidetrack the unprepared, judgments were made. Most people had to depend on their family to provide the proper equipment and chant the appropriate spells to help them attain the afterlife. But the king could call upon the resources of the entire country in his bid for immortality. The greatest manifestation of this is seen in the pyramids of the Giza Plateau

The three pyramids at Giza are the most visited attraction in the world. The Great Pyramid of the Fourth Dynasty king Khufu, the ultimate 'resurrection machine', is the largest pyramid ever built.

It stands with its neighbors, the pyramids of Khafra and Menkaura, as the last remaining of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The immense size of these pyramids invites comparison with the most ambitious human projects of any age, and they have never ceased to fire people's imagination.

Both Herodotus and Egyptian texts explicitly state that pyramids served as tombs, and the archaeological evidence confirms this beyond doubt. Nevertheless, from the nineteenth century onwards, bizarre theories about their function have proliferated, insisting that the Great Pyramid in particular served a hidden, more exalted purpose. Interpreted variously as an astronomical observatory, sundial, the embodiment of secret knowledge about the past and the future, the Great Pyramid has been held to be the perfect structure and the product of divine inspiration.

Such 'pyramidiocy' has sometimes been promoted for political reasons. For example, calculations (not necessarily accurate) revealed that the basic unit of measure used in the construction of the Great Pyramid was remarkably similar to the English inch. As the perfect unit in a divine creation, to abandon the inch for the metric system, as Parliament was considering in 1874, would be a blasphemous and pagan act; and indeed, partly for this reason among others, the move was rejected.

In more recent times, pyramidiocy has resurfaced in various updated forms. As our horizons have broadened, it is not just secret biblical knowledge that has been discerned encrypted in the form and dimensions of the Great Pyramid, but extra-terrestrial intelligence as well. Yet even the most bizarre theories concerning master races and alien origins for these supreme Egyptian creations in their way pay tribute to the Fourth Dynasty rulers, simply by expressing incredulity that they could organize and complete so colossal a task.

Pyramids, however, are not restricted to Giza, nor are they phenomena only of the Fourth Dynasty. The origins of the pyramid begin well before the 'Pyramid Age' of the Old Kingdom and end long after.

For over one thousand years Egyptian kings built tombs for themselves and their queens in the form of; pyramids. There are in fact over ninety 'royal' pyramids in Egypt, dotting the landscape from the apex of the Delta to the First Cataract of the Nile.

The Resurrection Machine

To understand the origins of the pyramids one must go back to the very beginning, the beginning of the world as the Egyptians saw it. For at this time there was only a watery void called Nun, which contained the essence of all creation. Out of this chaotic yet creative soup arose a mound, just as the mounds of fertile silt teeming with life emerged as the waters of the annual Nile flood receded. On that mound of creation appeared the sun god Ra-Atum, embodiment of life and goodness, the source of energy, light and warmth.

From him the rest of creation issued forth as he rose in the sky, only to plunge back into the chaotic void with every sunset to be recreated again. For the Egyptians, creation unfolded not once, but continuously. By linking up with this cosmic cycle, they too could emerge reborn.

The pyramid was essentially this mound of creation, a cocoon in which the king underwent the transformation or recreation into an eternal transfigured spirit called an akh. Journeying to the sky, he was united with the gods and resurrected each morning.

But the pyramid itself was only one part of the resurrection machine. Like all gods, the king was in permanent need of the sustenance and offerings which were provided to him on earth. Thus, the pyramid alone was not enough to ensure a good afterlife. In time elaborate complexes developed which incorporated the pyramid and offering places, ranging from small chapels to a vast series of interconnected temples and estates, to service the needs of the deceased pharaoh on earth. No pyramid or pyramid complex is exactly like another. Their continuous development can be understood not only in terms of technological innovation and evolving religious beliefs, but also of the desire to ensure the absolute and eternal power of the resurrection machine to do its job.